Breaking the Chains
Page 7
Its acceptance of God notwithstanding, Yogic thought is traditionally regarded as synonymous with the Samkhya system of philosophy; so much so, that Yoga is also known as Seshvara-Samkhya (theistic Samkhya). There are six accepted systems of Indian philosophy. Samkhya is one of them. Its fundamental postulation is a dualism of matter (prakriti) and self (putusha). According to Samkhya thought matter and the self are all that is needed to explain the
universe. Consequently, it is unnecessary to assume the existence of God. The Samkhya system allows for innumerable, individual, and equivalent selves. Self, which is pure consciousness, exists everywhere, and is separate from matter. However, when it wrongly identifies itself with matter the ‘great one’ (mahat) evolves, and after this ‘I-maker’ (ahankara) comes into existence - ahankara can be thought of as the ego. In Samkhya terms, right knowledge is necessary in order for self to distinguish itself from matter. Patanjali’s Yoga, and Samkhya philosophy claim that self and mind are distinct. Mind (citta) is classified as an object that cannot know itself. It is, however, known by the self. Through the process of Yoga an attempt is made to bring mental changes to a cessation (citta-vrtti) in order that the self can rest in its true essence. Patanjali views the body as unclean. Nevertheless, quite a lot of the discipline set down in the Yoga-sutras is designed for the perfecting of the body. Bodily perfection is composed of ‘beauty, grace, strength, and adamantine hardness.’
Most scholars conclude that the Yoga-sutras were written pseudonymously as the name Patanjali carries no cast indicator, and is strongly insinuative of divine descent from Shesa: the great naga upon whose coils Vishnu is shown reclining. Some of the so-called mystical (tantric) forms of Yoga seem allusive to nagas. In these forms of Yoga the stated aim is to awaken a power known as the Kundalini, which is depicted as a coiled serpent at the base of the spine. Once the Kundalini has been awoken the yogi attempts to draw it up through seven psychic-energy centres (chakras). Theoretically, when the Kundalini reaches the seventh chakra the yogi experiences union - yoga means union in Sanskrit. There are, supposedly, eighty-eight thousand chakras associated with the human body. Of primary significance are the seven (four in Buddhism) that are found along the spine: the base of the spine, the spleen, the solar plexus, the heart, the throat, the forehead, and the top of the skull. The lowest chakra (muladhara) and the highest chakra (sahasrara) are considered the most important. Kundalini is encompassed by the lowest chakra, and union is achieved when the Kundalini arrives at the highest chakra - chakra means wheel in Sanskrit.
Another way of perceiving the Kundalini is as the Goddess coiled around the root of the linga. The Goddess is defined as the active power (shakti) of the godhead. Worship of the shakti is called Shaktism. It can be thought of as a blend of Shaivism and various mother-goddess cults. Shakti is the most important contributory influence relating to the salvation of any individual and the action of the universe, because God acts exclusively through it. Shakti, imagined as a female deity, is the wife of God. As Mahayogini (Great Mistress of Yoga), Shakti brings the world into existence, preserves, and reabsorbs it. In some traditions Shiva owes his existence to Shakti. Worshipped as the ruler of the universe, Shakti is seen as inseparable from Brahman, the supreme being of the Upanishads. Shakti has many names: Aditi, Vac, Lakshmi, Durga, Kali, Radha, Parvati, et al. Shakti as the Great Mother Manasa, a snake goddess who may be related to the naga race, supposedly conquered the worshippers of other deities by releasing her powers of destruction in the form of serpents.
The naga is a motif that appears inherently Hindu. That Vishnu is often depicted reclining on the coils of a naga is indicative of the antiquity of the motif, and the notion that Brahma relegated nagas to the nether regions after they became too populous on earth is suggestive of conflict or competition. Nagas are represented by Kundalini in esoteric forms of Yoga. Through the Great Mother Manasa, nagas are identifiable with Mother Goddess worship. Garuda’s antipathy for nagas may denote a religious conflict. The dynasties of Manipur in north-eastern India, the Pallavas in southern India, and the ruling family of ancient Indochina (Funan) traced their origin to the union of a human and naga. To suppose that there ever existed a race of beings which were half-human and half-serpent would be absurd. It would be more reasonable to assume that nagas were completely human, and that their association with serpents was emblematic or totemistic. Another serpent to which human characteristics are often attributable is the dragon. Nagas and dragons may share common origins.
Stories about serpents with human characteristics appear in many mythologies: a Sioux myth explains how the Thunderbirds are constantly at war with the Giant Horned Snakes that are a potential source of knowledge about herbs; Toltec tradition relates how Feathersnake (Quetzalcoatl) rejected human sacrifice and instituted the arts of dancing, painting, and writing; Australian Aboriginal mythology contains stories of Snake-Man (Jarapiri) who arrived in Australia via Indonesia; from Brazil comes a myth about Waraku’s father (a large water-snake or crocodile monster) who brought bananas, yams, sweet potatoes, and yucca to the hero Paraparawa; the Ashanti of west Africa possess a myth in which a python from the Sky God helps the first couple to have children; Wutu mythology tells of a snake who lied to the people about God’s design for them, and kept God’s gift of immortality to himself; Slavonic mythology relates how Zmei Gorynich (Serpent of the Mountains) may appear with the head of a serpent and the body of a man; Scandinavian tradition relates how Fafnir turned himself into a dragon to guard some gold; Greek mythology contains stories of giants with serpents tails; Chinese myth explains that the sun has been replaced by a dragon with a human face; Egyptian mythology features a cobra goddess named Edjo or Buto, who acted as nurse to the infant Horus and helped Isis protect him from his uncle Seth; Iranian mythology recounts how Yama, the first ruler, was overthrown by Azhi Dahaka (Dahaka the Snake).