Breaking the Chains
Page 2
Taoism, with its emphasis on individual freedom, spontaneity, social primitivism, mystical experience, and self-transformation techniques, is very different from Confucianism, the other important Chinese religious system. According to tradition Lao-tzu (570-490 BC) a native of Ho-nan, who worked as a court librarian, was the founder of Taoism. His small book ‘Tao-te Ching’ is now the most translated Chinese literary work, and has had a very great influence on Chinese culture and thought. Historians, however, disagree about whether Lao-tzu was the author of the ‘Tao-te Ching’ as it was probably written about 200 to 100 BC. Confucianism asks the Individual to conform to the standards of an ideal social system, while Taoism maintains that the individual should seek only to conform to the Tao, or pattern of the universe, which cannot be imagined or described. The Taoist endeavours to empty himself or herself of all knowledge and doctrines, and by yielding spontaneously to the impulses of the self’s own intrinsic nature hopes to achieve unity with the Tao. Lao-tzu urged folk to: ‘Reduce selfishness, embrace the primitive, have few desires, and manifest the simple.’ The ‘Tao-te Ching’ or ‘Lao-tzu’, as it had been known, was written for rulers. Another Taoist book, the ‘Chuang-tzu’, written in the 3rd century BC by the philosopher Chuang-tzu, is supposedly a guide directing all folk towards the realisation of total freedom. For several brief periods Taoism was the official religion of China. Aspects of Taoism found their way into east Asian cultures influenced by China - especially Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean cultures.
Although the main themes and texts of philosophical Taoism, which emphasise inner contemplation and mystical union with nature through wu-wei (non-action), achieved acceptance during the so-called Warring States period (481-221 BC) esoteric or religious Taoism developed in the 2nd century AD. The goal of this kind of Taoism was immortality, which was sought via magic and alchemy. Techniques for gaining immortality included breath control, meditation, sexual disciplines, and the use of talismans. In its search for the elixir of immortality, Taoist alchemy developed wai-tan (chemical experimentation) and nei-tan (a theoretical internal alchemy) which attempted to reverse the ageing process through a marriage of Yin and Yang within the body. Fu (talismans) were employed for communication with the hsien (Immortals), for protection against demons, and healing. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD Taoist experimentation in alchemy gave way to the development of hygiene cults, which eventually resulted in a general hygiene system. This system is still practised today: it stresses concentration and regular breathing to promote longevity and prevent disease. Religious Taoism, in today’s China, has tended to merge with Buddhism. Chinese civilisation stretches back to at least the 3rd millennium BC. Consequently, Taoism, which was created in the 6th century BC, should be seen as a recently developed religion which came to usurp much older Chinese traditions.
Zen (Chan in Chinese) is seen by most scholars as a synthesis of Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism. According to tradition it was founded by Bodhidharma (Daruma in Japanese) who was a follower of Kasyapa, a student of the Buddha. 28th in the line of transmission from Kasyapa, Bodhidharma supposedly travelled from Conjeeveram in India to Canton in China. In 520 AD he impressed emperor Wudi by declaring good deeds useless for gaining enlightenment. Bodhidarma is credited with originating Shao-lin boxing after gaining enlightenment at the now famous Shao-lin temple. His teaching emphasised meditation, and he allegedly spent nine years staring at a wall - legend says he cut off his eyelids after he once fell asleep during meditation, and that on another occasion meditated for so long that his legs fell off. In actuality, Bodhidharma’s role in the emergence of Zen is obscure. Worse still, from a research point of view, the origins of Mahayana Buddhism are also obscure - not even the names of its founders are known. Did it originate in southern India or north-western India? Scholars disagree. It is generally accepted, however, that it originated between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD.
Mahayana Buddhism is very different from Theravada Buddhism, the other principal branch of Buddhism. The Buddha is believed to be a manifestation of a divine being in Mahayana Buddhism. In Theravada Buddhism he is seen as a man. Mahayana Buddhists believe there are countless Buddhas in a countless number of universes. The ideal Theravada Buddhist, the arhat, can do very little to help anyone else achieve enlightenment, whereas the ideal Mahayana Buddhist, the bodhisattva, delay their entry into nirvana in order to help all other sentient beings achieve salvation. Another important difference between these two branches of Buddhism relates to sunyata, or emptiness of all things, doctrine. Theravada Buddhists accept the no-soul theory but accept the reality of the elements of existence. The Mahayana Buddhists also accept the no-soul theory but deny the reality of the elements of existence - they maintain that as there is no permanent foundation beneath or within anything, things do not and cannot exist.
Chan is the Chinese way of saying dhayana and Zen is the Japanese way of saying dhayana. Dhayana is a Sanskrit term which means something akin to contemplation or meditation. Through meditating on sunyata (emptiness of all things) the Zen Buddhist hopes to arrive at wu-hsin (no-mind): a state of consciousness in which thoughts move without leaving any trace. Zen Buddhists teach that such a state cannot be achieved by practice but through tun-wu (direct and immediate insight). Chan or Zen Masters endeavour to communicate their vision of truth by a method known as direct pointing.